Psychology Essays Forensic Psychology

Psychology Essays Forensic Psychology Forensic Psychology: Critically discuss research studies that have investigated the psychological factors associated with police stress. There is a natural assumption in the public consciousness that being a police officer is a stressful occupation. It is thought that the effects of dealing with the kinds of people and situations that police officers are regularly required to must be stressful. This perception is not just confined to lay-people: psychiatrists and occupational physicians find that police officers are in the top three occupations that are reported to the Occupational Disease Intelligence Network (ODIN). Similarly, studies such as Schmitdke, Fricke Lester (1999) have found a higher rate of suicide amongst police officers than other similar members of a German population. In a recent review of 26 different professions in the UK, Johnson, Cooper, Cartwright, Donald, Taylor Millet (2005) found that police officers were amongst the top 6 professions for high levels of stress and low levels of job satisfaction. Like any area of psychological research, individual differences are going to be important in how a person reacts to a situation. There has been some research carried out into the different individual factors that affect police stress in a number of different police forces around the world. Many of the researched populations have not, however, involved the police, but the factors that have been examined are common amongst occupational groups. Amongst these, Clarke Cooper (2000) include Type A behaviour, negative affectivity, the locus of control, coping styles and psychological hardiness. Negative affectivity, for example, is a tendency in an individual to show generally negative emotions and reactions across a range of situations. The research has frequently found a link between stress and negative affectivity. Similarly there is a large amount of research into Type A personalities. Type A personalities are often impatient, strive for achievement and are very competitive. This facto r has been shown to be important in connection with stress. Davidson Veno (1980) report that 75% of a sample of police officers showed that they had Type A personalities not a surprise considering some of the job requirements. The idea of psychological hardiness has also been shown to be important in stress reaction this has been defined by Lambert Lambert (1999) as involving the factors of control, commitment and challenge. Control refers to the extent to which a person believes that they have an influence over the things that happen to them, commitment envisages an involvement with events that are happening, and challenge infers an approach to life that incorporates and expects change as a matter of course. Hills Norvell (1991) examine psychological hardiness in a sample of 234 highway patrol officers. The findings showed that hardiness as well as neuroticism (almost the same as negative affectivity) moderated the relationship between measures of stress and its physiological and psychological consequences. Much of the older research into stress in the police has concentrated on the negative impact of police work. It has tended to assume that bad experiences at work will tend to result in stress, which in turn results in an absence of well-being. This may not be correct, as research has shown that bad experiences do not tend to have a negative effect on well-being (Cohen Hoberman, 1983). Hart, Wearing, Headey (1995) wanted to examine, then, how personality, coping and work experiences affected well-being. 527 Australian police officers completed a Perceived Quality of Life questionnaire that incorporated a number of different measures including the Satisfaction With Life scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen Griffin, 1985) and the General Well-Being Questionnaire (Cox Gott, 1990). This research made a number of findings based on these data. For their first finding they compared the psychological well-being of police officers to other professions, in this case school teachers, tertiary stude nts and community norms. It was found that police officers showed similar levels of psychological well-being to these other groups. This lead the authors of the this study to conclude that police officers have normal levels of psychological well-being. This finding can be questioned though, as Johnson et al. (2005) found that teachers also tend to have high levels of stress and low levels of job satisfaction. Hart et al. (1995) are not making valid comparisons. That caveat aside, the authors did look more specifically at what factors were associated with higher levels of stress. Here they confirmed what has already been a consistent finding in the research that it is organisational variables that contribute more to levels of stress than operational variables. In other words police officers in this sample, as in previous research, found their police departments a greater source of stress than dealing with criminals and the extreme situations they came into contact with during their j ob. As well as these aspects, this research also examined personality variables, police work experiences and coping strategies to see how they affected well-being but no particularly strong findings were reported other than some moderate correlations. Findings about the importance of organisational variables over operational variables have also been found in a sample of police officers from the UK. Collins Gibbs (2003) administered a postal questionnaire to 1,206 members of a county police force who were constables and sergeants. This questionnaire attempted to assess the complete loop of the stress-strain cycle by obtaining measures of perceived occupational stress and perceived life stress. Further to this measures were taken of personality factors, moderators in the form of social support and the individuals shift pattern to look for a correlation there as well. In addition to these the General Health Questionnaire was administered. Collins Gibbs (2003) report previous evidence of two studies in the UK that found that levels of mental ill-health amongst police officers was between 17 and 22% (Brown Campbell, 1990, Alexander, Walker, Innes Irving, 1993). In this study, however, mental ill-health had risen to 42% of the sampl e suggesting that levels of stress, and/or its effects, had risen in the 10 years between the studies. In examining the cause of the stress, this study confirmed the result found in Hart et al. (1995) in finding that it was organisational stressors that had a greater effect than operational stressors. The measurement of other factors such as personality, social support and shift work did not provide any particularly significant results. For example little association was found between shift work and stress levels, contrary to previous research which has found it to be associated with higher levels of stress (Brown Campbell, 1990). A clear disadvantage of this study in being able to generalise to other police officers was that it was carried out in a relatively small non-metropolitan police force. Different balances of operational issues and organisational demands may be present. The authors counter this criticism citing a study into Manchester Metropolitan police force which found a similar concentration on the organisational issues (Crowe Stradling, 1993). Much of the older research on stress in the police suffered from methodological flaws, such as using incorrect measures and failing to compare police officers with other occupational groups (Hart et al., 1995). Brough (2004) researched police officers as well as fire and ambulance officers to compare the levels of stress and the response. It was found that levels of psychological trauma and organisational stressors were relatively similar across the services, while again, the importance of organisational stressors over operational stressors was repeated. Looking now more closely at stress, and what kinds of stress police officers have to deal with, it is useful to outline a model of stress to inform the discussion. Mitchell Bray (1990) explain that stress reactions can be categorised into three main different forms: cumulative, delayed and acute. Cumulative stress builds up over a period of time from a number of incidents, while both delayed and acute stress may have their primary cause in one particular incident, often called a critical incident. Police officers are often exposed to a number of critical incidents so the study of their effects on officers is of importance. The effects of this stress have been found to be considerable in many studies. One particularly strong type of reaction to stress is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which may be caused by experiencing an event involving the threat of death or an actual death. This is clearly something that a police officer is more likely to experience in their career with regularity than in most other professions. Ursano McCarroll (1990), for example, found that the handling of dead bodies and parts of bodies was a significant psychological stressor that caused psychological trauma. Stephens Miller (1998) investigated the rates of PTSD amongst a sample of 527 New Zealand police officers. They found that the rate of PTSD was similar to that experienced by members of a different population that had experienced a traumatic event of a similar nature. The majority of individuals in both groups recovered successfully from the experience. An important finding of this study was that a relationship w as found between the number of traumatic events witnessed and subsequent diagnoses of PTSD. Research in the UK has augmented these findings, Green (2004) reports evidence from Robinson, Sigman Wilson (1997) that found the prevalence of PTSD amongst suburban police officers of 13%, this compares to the prevalence amongst the general population of 2-3%. Green (2004) examined whether PTSD was any more severe amongst members of the police force, once established, than it was in the overall population. The study found that there were no significant differences between the two groups. A criticism of this study was that the number of participants was limited, with only 31 police officers and 72 civilians taking part. Still, the strong effects of trauma are replicated in other research: Carlier, Lamberts Gersons (1997) found in a sample of 262 traumatised police officers that, 3 months after a trauma they showed introversion, emotional exhaustion. In addition, at 12 months post trauma the y continued to have difficulty expressing their emotions, suffered job satisfaction and lack of social support amongst other symptoms. How police officers process traumatic events, then, seems to be very important psychological factor in the stress it causes. Karlsson Christianson (2003) examined the phenomenology of traumatic experiences in a sample of 162 Swedish police officers. The research found that all the police officers who took part were able to remember a traumatic incident from while they had been on duty. The memory of that traumatic event tended to come from the officers early career and usually involved all of the senses many aspects of which could be remembered in considerable detail. The fact that it was early events that most readily came to mind suggested that these had the greatest impact on a police officer. Karlsson Christianson (2003) also cite earlier work by Stradling, Crowe Tuohy (1993) in the UK that found that during the socialisation process into the police force, there was a change of role so that the individual had a more professional attitude to their work. This was often associat ed with a more cynical approach and self-perception. Karlsson Christianson (2003) make the point that the alternative explanation is that police officers simply become more adept at dealing with the stressful situations with which they have to deal. From this survey of some of the research into the factors associated with police stress it can be seen that there are many aspects to consider. Individual differences have an important role to play in reactions to stressful events. In comparing sources of stress, much of the research has found the surprising result that organisational rather than operational factors are more important. It is possible that organisational factors become more important as operational factors diminish. The research into the phenomenology and coping mechanisms shows that police officers perhaps learn how to cope better with stressful events. Despite this, it is clear that witnessing a number of traumatic events is likely to lead to PTSD. A large proportion of the research looks at averages over reasonably large populations which masks the fine-grain details that are better explored by Karlsson Christiansons (2003) study. A hint at gaps in the current research is provided by Johnson et al. (2005) which fo und that police officers at lower levels suffered higher levels of stress than those in more senior positions. These authors suggest that this might be the result of higher levels of emotional labour a concept that has not yet been carefully examined in this occupational population.

Andy Warhol – Paper

Consumerism can best be defined as the promotion of the consumers' interests and the theory that an increasing consumption of goods is economically desirable. Andy Warhol was amongst many other artists who were attacked for their open embrace of consumerism. He liked the idea that consumerism could unify Americans' of all different backgrounds but he believed that there was a lack of creativity and originality in advertising. Warhol began to use everyday objects as his subjects' and built on the movement that was later to be recognized as one ignited by him, known as Pop Art.After Warhol moved to New York, work came quickly for him and within a year of arriving, he received huge assignments as an advertising artist for a variety of high standing clients such as Columbia Records, Tiffany ; Co. , Vogue, and many others (The Andy Warhol Foundation. ) Whatever Andy illustrated from shampoo to perfume, there was a sense of decorative originality and it made his work eye catching. He would place various objects in the advertisement and they always had a slight suggestiveness to them, one that businessmen would recognize and approve (Wren 7.Andy stated that he was paid well for his commercial art and whatever was asked of him to draw or paint he would do it, if they wanted corrections he would do it, and after all those corrections, the commercial art would have attitude and style. He believed that the process of creating commercial art was machine-like but it had feeling to it. Whatever he did was machine-like and it was that way because he wanted it to be, he believed that machines had less problems and he wanted mechanical depictions. Warhol was motivated by money and he wanted to be a businessman/artist.The goal of his art was to make a profit because â€Å"if business art doesn't support its own space, it goes out of business. † (Wren 12. ) Whorl's success as a commercial designer was due greatly to his ability to take the uneducated and unskilled collecto rs and throw them in to the most advanced and sophisticated social setting of professional alienation, this he called advertisement design (Sera 8. ) Then the idea of Pop Art came in to play. Andy Warhol became the symbol of Pop Art and almost single handedly modernized the aesthetic tradition in the art world (Fearer . Pop Art challenged the traditions of fine art by adding in the subjects seen throughout popular culture. Sometimes the subject of the Pop Art is removed from its context and combined with unrelated imagery and material. Pop artists created images that anyone walking down the street would be able to recognize in no time and because of this there was a sense of artistic piracy because these images were not coming from the artist's imagination but as something they see and select to make their subject. They were things that ranged from comics and shower curtains to liberties and bras.They were images of all the great things that abstract expressionists tried so hard to not notice at all (Wren 13. ) Andy believed that art should not be for the select few but for the mass of America to enjoy. When asked about one of his most famous paintings, The Campbell Soup Can, he said, â€Å"l wanted to paint nothing. I was looking for something that was the essence of nothing, and the soup can was it. â€Å"(Wren 21 . ) Although as Warhol said he prefers to leave his background as a mystery and whenever asked why he made a particular image he makes up a story.He seems to always forget the story he made up the day before and therefore has to come up with a completely new on the next day to satisfy another person's question. Andy Warhol bridges the gap between two primary poles in modern art and they are the formal/constructivist branch and the avian-garden branch (Mayer 32-33. )When creating art he would use silk-screens, which is a technique that uses a woven mesh to support an ink-blocking stencil. The attached stencil forms open areas of mesh that transfer ink.A fill blade is moved across the screen stencil, forcing ink into the mesh openings for transfer by capillary action ruing the stroke. Because Andy was not actually drawing on the piece of work, it lost all personal ties with the artist and when he would press the ink filled paper onto what would become the finished piece of work, the lines took an irregular form. Warhol uses repetition in his paintings to guide the on looker away from any feelings of empathy and intimacy. His style ends the need for interpretation because the surface of the work is a recognizable reality that still moves the viewers (Ere 9. Whorl's work can best be described using Plat's allegory of the cave that man is rapped in a shadowed realm and subjected to the delusion that the shadows are hardly distinguishable from the real world. In Whorl's paintings after-images of humanity are projected on a surface that has been altered through color and cosmetics so they become unlike real life. The reason he pai nted so withdrawn can be linked to his lack of social development when he was younger, he was unpleasant with his classmates, showed little to no appreciation or interest in anything, but he had always seemed to have a goal in mind.It is said that Warhol aimed to become eke Henry Matisse because he was so well known in his career that all he had to do was tear up pieces of paper and glue them together and they would become a masterpiece. Warhol aimed to have that world- wide recognition (Wren 12. ) He began to portray celebrities in his works of art. Although the works had very similar names, they were done in different fashions. This shows how Whorl's work began to progress and become increasingly experimental in such a short amount of time. Both paintings Double Liz and Double Elvis were done in 1963 and both were done with only the medium as a connection.For Double Liz, Warhol set two enlarged illustrations of Liz Taylor on a canvas that was primed with silver; there is hardly a contrast in themes and the figure blends into the background. He creates a rectangular form that is placed in front of the silver's background. Double Liz was printed on a single, continuous roll of canvas. When creating Double Elvis, he no longer wanted to show a surface tone and this painting shows Elvis slightly overlapping himself and his dealer Irving Blue was instructed to stretch and cut them to Whorl's desired taste. The two stars were united in an exhibition at theFreer Gallery. Warhol printed almost entirely on silver backgrounds during his most extreme phase of the exhibition's preparations which amortized his stars not on the â€Å"great silver screen† but in his silver silkscreen paintings (Can't 114-117. ) Warhol said, â€Å"No matter how good you are, if you're not promoted right, you won't be remembered. â€Å"(Wren 23. ) His statement is completely true and this is one of the reasons he took a liking to portraying celebrities in his images. If the celebriti es talked highly of him and created a buzz then he would be remembered Just as they would.Andy began his film career in the early ass's. He wanted to depict simple scenes of how people could meet each other and what they cool d discuss. Some films would be of Just one actor, smoking or eating, because people go to the movies usually to see the star. They were very raw versions of film. Andy wasn't doing experimental film; he was really experimenting with people and the way they behaved as a character. Warhol enjoyed making movies that had no script, especially no plot because if it had a plot and you have seen it once, then you wouldn't want to watch it again because you already know the ending.But if it is Just a conversation between two people, then you can catch things you missed the first time. A major theme in all of Andy work is that he enjoys seeing the same image or scene over and over again. He has been called boring because he likes the same things but whether it's in his prints or films, you can catch something new and different that you may have noticed the first time you saw them and it might evoke a different feeling upon seeing it again (Andy. The subjects of his movies were unlike those being made in the present day. They were really quite simple.What he created promoted the nonuser's interests, he created for himself but the public fell in love. Warhol was a visionary who used such a vague aspect of pop culture and turned it into a phenomenon. No matter which medium of art he chose to engage in, Whorl's themes centered on consumerism. His work was driven by the idea of being around celebrities and having money, Just a few years later he would become the celebrity and have the most expensive paintings sold in the United States. Works Cited Books: Can't, Hate. Andy Warhol The Early Sixties: Paintings and Drawings 1961-1964. Andy Warhol – Paper A fill blade is moved across the screen stencil, forcing ink into the mesh openings for transfer by capillary action during the stroke. Because Andy was not actually drawing on the piece of work, it lost all personal ties with the artist and when he would press the ink filled paper onto what would become the finished piece of work, the lines took an irregular form. Warhol uses repetition in his paintings to guide the on looker away from any feelings f empathy and intimacy. His style ends the need for interpretation because the surface of the work is a recognizable reality that still moves the viewers (Ere 9. Whorl's work can best be described using Plat's allegory of the cave that man is trapped in a shadowed realm and subjected to the delusion that the shadows are hardly distinguishable from the real world. In Whorl's paintings after-images of humanity are projected on a surface that has been altered through color and cosmetics so they become unlike real life. The reason he painted so withdrawn can be linked to his lack of social development when he was younger, he was unpleasant tit his classmates, showed little to no appreciation or interest in anything, but he had always seemed to have a goal in mind.It is said that Warhol aimed to become like Henry Matisse because he was so well known in his career that all he had to do was tear up pieces of paper and glue them together and they would become a masterpiece. Warhol aimed to have that world- wide recognition (Wren 12. ) He began to portray celebrities in his works of art. Although the works had very similar names, they were done in different fashions. This shows how Whorl's work began to regress and become increasingly experimental in such a short amount of time. Both paintings Double Liz and Double Elvis were done in 1963 and both were done with only the medium as a connection.For Double Liz, Warhol set two enlarged illustrations of Liz Taylor on a canvas that was primed with silver; there is hardly a contra st in themes and the figure blends into the background. He creates a rectangular form that is placed in front of the silver's background. Double Liz was printed on a single, continuous roll of canvas. When creating Double Elvis, he no longer wanted to show a surface tone and this painting shows Elvis slightly overlapping himself and his dealer Irving Blue was instructed to stretch and cut them to Whorl's desired taste. The two stars were united in an exhibition at the Freer Gallery.Warhol printed almost entirely on silver backgrounds during his most extreme phase of the exhibition's preparations which amortized his stars not on the â€Å"great silver screen† but in his silver silkscreen paintings (Can't 114-117. ) Warhol said, â€Å"No matter how good you are, if you're not promoted right, you won't be remembered. â€Å"(Wren 23. ) His statement is completely true and this is one of the reasons he took a liking to portraying celebrities in his images. If the celebrities tal ked highly of him and created a buzz then he would be remembered Just as they would. Andy began his film career in the early ass's.He wanted to depict simple would be of Just one actor, smoking or eating, because people go to the movies usually to see the star. They were very raw versions of film. Andy wasn't doing experimental film; he was really experimenting with people and the way they behaved as a character. Warhol enjoyed making movies that had no script, especially no plot because if it had a plot and you have seen it once, then you wouldn't want to attach it again because you already know the ending. But if it is Just a conversation between two people, then you can catch things you missed the first time.A major theme in all of Ands work is that he enjoys seeing the same image or scene over and over again. He has been called boring because he likes the same things but whether it's in his prints or films, you can catch something new and different that you may have noticed the first time you saw them and it might evoke a different feeling upon seeing it again (Andy. The subjects of his movies were unlike those being made in the present day. They were really quite simple. What he created promoted the consumer's interests, he created for himself but the public fell in love.

Homer Barron’s remains that lay on the bed

It was Homer Barron’s remains that lay on the bed in one   of the rooms of the old Grierson house, found there forty years after his disappearance.   The circumstances and events cited by the author of the short story â€Å"A Rose for Emily† point out to this inevitable conclusion.Only a person with an abnormal state of mind would suffer a dead man to lie unburied for years, mouldering right inside a room in her house. When some of the neighbours complained of the foul smell, Miss Emily acted as if nothing was wrong: the men who had surreptitiously entered her lawn to spread lime over the ground saw her sitting inside one of the rooms.   Unknown to them at that time, she was perhaps keeping vigil or visiting her lover’s corpse.That she would lie down with him night after night – evidenced by the â€Å"long strand of iron-gray hair† found in the indentation in the pillow beside him –   bespeaks of her utter loss of sanity, which was no t so visible at first. That Miss Emily suffered from emotional instability – a streak of madness in her – becomes apparent as the story unfolds.Cloistered in the ancient Grierson mansion, Miss Emily is seen as someone above the average citizen: her supposed lineage kept people at bay.   She ignored tax notices sent after her father died; either she did not comprehend, or she had naively believed the old tale that the townspeople were indebted to her family.   She is impervious   and cold, seemingly devoid of any emotion, as if lost in a   world only she knows about.We find the first strong evidence of her unnatural state of mind when her father dies: she refuses for three days to have him buried, telling the mourners he was not dead.   â€Å"We did not say she was crazy then,† narrates the author.   The people saw her grief as evidence of a despairing helplessness, feeling herself so alone, still unmarried, her father having driven away those young m en who had earlier proposed to her.We are told that Miss Emily â€Å"had some kin in Alabama; but years ago her father had fallen out with them over the estate of old lady Wyatt, the crazy woman . . . â€Å" Here is yet another hint that madness ran in the family.When she and Homer Barron are seen together, causing a scandal among the townsfolk, the Baptist minister is sent to talk to her.   The minister does not say what transpired during their interview but he refuses to go back (and talk to her) again.Perhaps the minister was taken aback by Miss Emily’s haughty demeanor as that she displayed when she vanquished the town officials who had demanded from her payment of taxes.   Or maybe the minister saw something frightful in Emily’s eyes that he refused to talk to her again.

Lyndon B. Johnson s President Of The United States Essay

Lyndon B. Johnson, the 36th president of the United States, was born in Texas, on August 27, 1908. Lyndon was the oldest born. Politicians ran in LBJ’s family; His father, Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. was a democratic member of the Texas House of Representatives. LBJ struggled in school as a child, but graduated from Southwest Texas State Teachers College. LBJ started his career in politics as a legislative secretary to the Texas Democratic Congressman. LBJ’s first campaign was in 1937 when he was twenty eight years old. He campaigned with the energy of 10 men; he spoke in every town in his district and made over two hundred speeches. In turn, LBJ was elected one of the youngest members of congress. One could say that LBJ had an obsessive drive to succeed. This is evident throughout his political career. LBJ met his wife Claudia Alta Taylor, also known as Lady Bird, in 1934. She used her inheritance money to fund LBJ’s 1937 run for Congress. She never stopped serving her husband’s ambitions. Franklin D. Roosevelt was LBJ’s political hero. After meeting with LBJ as a young senator, Roosevelt knew that he was special. President Roosevelt helped LBJ win an appointment in the U.S. Naval reserve as a lieutenant commander. LBJ served on a tour of the south pacific where he received a Silver Star medal for his participation in the mission, even though his plane was forced to turn around due to mechanical difficulty. In a close and controversial election, Lyndon B. JohnsonShow MoreRelatedLyndon B. Johnson s President Of The United States1833 Words   |  8 PagesLyndon B. 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